Journal of Engineering Geology

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Today the effects of grouting are usually confirmed by the results of permeability tests but this method is not enough to show the changes in mechanical properties of rock masses. Although many investigators use the in situ tests for evaluation of rock mass mechanical property improvement. But this tests are time consuming and expensive. Grouting reduces the permeability and improves the condition of joints and ultimately increases the rate of rock mass classification in rock engineering. So with measurement of rock mass quality index values (Q-value) in cores obtained from grouted boreholes, the efficiency and success in improving the mechanical properties of rock mass can be showed. This paper for first time introduces Q-logging as a simple method to assess the impact of grouting in improvement of the rock mass quality. Here in, the results of Q-Logging in trial injection panels in the Bakhtiary, Bazoft and Khersan II dams have been examined. The deformation modulus were calculated from the Q-Logging for before and after of grouting. Results show that there is a good agreement between calculated rock mass parameters based on the Q-Logging method and the measured from in-situ test in the studied site. This agreement confirms the efficiency and applicability of the Q- Logging method for assessment of grouting success as well as the estimation of the rock mass parameters in grouted areas. Also it has been shown that the deformation modulus in weak rock mass with low quality has been more improved than rock mass with beater quality.

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Evaluation of strong ground motion up beneath the construction is important in both geotechnical engineering (site effect) and earthquake engineering aspects (analysis of earth behavior). The common methods of microzonation in geotechnical engineering are based on one dimensional dynamic analysis, in which ground surface is assumed to be horizontal. However in many cases, because of variety of topography conditions, recorded responses are different on the top of hills and their corners. In this study, FLAC 2D software, as finite difference software, is used to analysis the trapezoidal hill with different shape ratios. These topography models are analyzed by far field earthquake records, and their dimensionless amplification ratios are compared with the obtained results of one dimensional analysis. Assessment of these two analyses methods in some points on the topography and around it, demonstrated considerable differences that show the necessity of two dimensional analysis in earthquake geotechnical engineering.

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Introduction
Local site conditions considerably influence all characteristics of the ground strong motion including the domain, frequency content, and duration. The level of such an effect could be considered as a function of geometry, properties of the materials embedded in the underlying layers, the site topography, and properties of excitement. Site effect fall into two categories: a) the effect of the surface soft layers triggered by the shear velocity differences between the soil layers and b) the surface and subsurface topography effects that lead to the wave reflection and refraction based on the site geometry, and subsequently enhance the level of amplification.
Since most cities have been constructed in the vicinity of or on sedimentary basins, geotechnical earthquake engineering devotes particular attention to effects of the sedimentary basins. Basin edge curvature deposited with soft soils are capable to trap the body waves and generated surface waves within the deposit layers. Such waves could create stronger and lengthier vibrations than those estimated in a 1D analysis that assumes the shear waves to be vertically propagated.
Although critically important, the 2D effect of the site has not been included in seismic codes and standards of the world. This might be due to the fact that the site effect depends on a number of parameters such as the site geometry, the type of wave excitement, properties of the materials, etc. that in return make it almost out of the question to make predictions about the effect. This study was an effort to compare the responses of four sedimentary basins with hypothetical geometries of rectangular, trapezoidal, elliptical, and triangular shapes in order to examine the effect of the geometrical shape of the basin on its responses and the extent of the response sensitivity to the excitation frequency of the wave. The study assumed the edge to depth proportion to be both constant and equal in all four basins so that the effect of the geometrical shape could be equally examined and compared in all four basins.      
Material and methods
In order to validate the results of the sedimentary basin modeling, firstly, ABAQUS finite element software was used to create a free field motion of a semi-circular alluvium valley in accordance with Kamalian et al. (2006) and Moassesian and Darvinsky (1987).  Then, the results from the model were compared with those from the above mentioned studies. The following descriptions are to present the model in details.
To evaluate the geometrical effect of the sedimentary basin on its response, the authors relied on the software to examine four sedimentary basins with the fundamental frequency (2.04 Hz). The basins enjoyed rectangular, trapezoidal, elliptical, and triangular geometrical shapes with a constant edge to depth proportion (49m to 300m respectively). The implicit method was also applied to perform the dynamic analysis. The materials were all viscoelastic and homogeneous. The soil behavior/treatment model was considered to be of a linear nature.  The Rayleigh damping model was used to specify the damping level. The soil element was a plane strain and SV waves (the Ricker wavelet) were used for seismic loadings in a vertical dispersion. The side boundaries (right and left) of the model were of a combinational type (viscous and free field boundaries); the down side boundary was composed of viscous. To achieve higher levels of wave absorptions, heavy columns were used as the free filed columns.
Next, it was the time to conduct the 1D analysis of the site. Three waves were in use in order to examine the effect of the frequency content of the excitation load on the basin response: 1) a wave with the dominant frequency of 1Hz that was out of the frequency range of all basins (2.04 Hz), a second wave with the dominant frequency of 2Hz that was close to the fundamental frequency of all basins, and a third wave with the dominant frequency of 4Hz. The waves were applied to a 2Dmodel. The results were compared with those obtained from a 1Dmodel in terms of the timing.
Then, the basin responses to all three waves (1, 2, and 4 Hz) were subjected to an individual analysis in order to examine the sensitivity of each basin response to its geometrical shape. Results indicated that while the responses of the rectangular and trapezoidal basins were significantly more sensitive to the excitation frequencies, the elliptical and triangular basins showed more stable behaviors to such frequencies. The final stage of the study was dedicated to examine the site 2D effect during the ground motion.
Results and Conclusions
According to the results of the present study, it could be suggested that the geometrical shape of the sedimentary basin has a significant effect on the responses of the field of seismic waves and that it could result in so different responses from the ones attained after a 1D analysis of the site. In addition, the pattern of the seismic waves’ responses is highly dependent on the geometrical shape and the frequency content of the seismic load. Also, the location where the maximum horizontal acceleration occurs along with the sedimentary basin depends on the excitation wave and varies accordingly. Further, it could be suggested that the site 2D effect results in both considerable amplification and an increase in the length of ground motion.
The results of the 2D analysis showed remarkable differences with their 1D counterparts: a 1.45 larger response for the rectangular basin, a 1.28 larger response for the trapezoidal basin, a 1.22 larger response for the elliptical basin, and a 1.19 larger response for the triangular basin.
With the frequency of 1 Hz where the excitation frequency is out of the basin range (i.e. the excitation frequency is below the lowest frequency of basin), the sedimentary basin did not show any signs of amplification and chaos (unlike two other frequencies); instead, it was a cause for de-amplification.
The frequency of 2 Hz that is subject to resonance resulted in amplifications (absent in 1D analysis) and there are traces of a reduction in the acceleration responses near to the edges of the basins. The proportion of the amplification (in the center of the basins) in 2D to 1D analysis was 1.4 for the rectangular basin, 1.28 for the trapezoidal basin, 1.22 for the elliptical basin, and 1.15 for the triangular basin.
 

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Introduction
In many areas of the world, the mechanical properties of soils for utilization of land are not sufficient. For improvement of these lands, soil stabilization such as compacting, installation of nails, elders of piles, mixing soil with lime or cement before or during constructions on the surface or inside of the ground can be useful. Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP), due to its versatility and stable performance, has been recently attracted the attention of many researchers in the field of the geotechnical engineering around the world. MICP is a biological technique that is naturally caused to create a cementation agent, which is known as calcium carbonate or calcite by controlling the metabolism of bacteria. Although there are many biological processes that can be lead to MICP, but the using of urea hydrolysis by bacteria is commonly used more. In this method, aerobic bacteria with the enriched urease enzymes inject into the soil. Hydrolysis of urea occurs when the bacteria speeds up the hydrolysis reaction to produce ammonium and carbonate ions. In the presence of soluble calcium ions, carbonate ions are precipitated and formed the calcium carbonate crystals. When these crystals are formed on a grain of soil or like a bridge between them, they prevent the movement of grains and thus improve the mechanical and geotechnical properties of the soil.
Material and methods
In the present study, the effect of increasing fines on the improvement of Anzali sandy soil, and soil resistance parameters for improving the clean sand and its mixtures with a fine grained cohesive soil and a fine grained cohesionless soil separately in a percentage weight of 30 by MICP and using a small scale of direct shear test (6×6) have been investigated. In the present study the sandy soil was collected from the coast of Bandar Anzali Free Zone and for the preparation of samples of clayey sand and silty sand, Kaolinite clay soils and Firouzkooh broken silt were used, respectively. Anzali sand is poorly graded and had a rounded corner with an average particle size of 0.2 mm, somewhat, sharpening cores are also found in its granulation. In addition, its fine grained content is very small (less than 1%). The Kaolinite clay is also labeled with a liquid limit of 40, a plastic limit of 25, and a plasticity index of 15 as an inorganic clay (CL). The used microorganism in this study is urease positive Sporosarcina pasteurii, which is maintained with the number of PTCC1645 at the Center Collective of Industrial Microorganisms of Iran Scientific and Research Organization. The bacterium was cultured in a culture medium containing 20 g/l yeast extract and 10 g/l ammonium chloride at pH 9 under aerobic conditions in incubator shaker machine at 150 rpm and temperature of 30 °C. The organism was grown to late exponential/early stationary phase and stored at 4 °C before injection in samples. A solution of calcium chloride and urea with a molar ratio of one is also used as a cementation solution. With the direct shear test (6cm×6cm) as a benchmarking of the shear strength in the before and after improvement steps, molds fitted with a shear box made of the galvanized sheet with a thickness of 0.6 mm and it consists of two main parts, the body,  in the middle of which an exhaust pipe was embedded in the injector waste fluid. At the bottom of the samples, a layer of filter paper was placed in order to prevent soil washes, and then all samples with a thickness of 2 cm, with a relative density of 30% at the same weight and height were pressed. In the upper part of the samples, a layer of filter paper is similarly used to prevent the discontinuity of soil particles when injected biological materials are used. Biological solutions are injected from the top to the specimens and allowed to penetrate under the influence of gravitational and capillary forces in the sample and discharge the inhaled fluid from the exhaust pipe. The criterion for determining the volume of the solution to inject into each sample is the pure volume (PV) of soil. The preparation process of the samples was initiated by injection of a PV water unit, followed by a two-layer mixture of bacterial suspensions and cementation solutions, each with a volume of one PV, and then for biological reactions, 24 hours to the sample at laboratory temperature (25 ± 2) is given. After the time of incubation, the solution of cementation is injected into the sample for a period of three days and every 24 hours. The processing time of samples is also considered 28 days. In this study, optical density (OD) was selected as a benchmark for estimating the concentration of bacterial cells in the culture medium, and in all stages of development, and precisely before injection of bacteria suspension into soil samples, it was measured by a spectrophotometer device at 600 nm (OD₆₀₀) wavelength, which was obtained for all bacterial suspensions in the range of 1.7 to 2 before the injection. To determine the activity of urea bacteria, 1 ml of bacterial suspension was added to nine milliliters of 1.11 molar urea solution, and by immersing the electrode of the electrical conductivity in the solution, its conductivity was recorded for 5 minutes at 20 ± 2 ° C. The rate of urea activity in the pre-treatment stage for all specimens was in the range of 0.8 to 1.23 mS min^-1. In order to evaluate the shear strength parameters of soil samples, before and after the improvement operations, a direct shear test was used based on the ASTM D3080 standard. This test was performed for all samples under stresses of 50, 100 and 150 kPa in undrained conditions at a loading speed of 1 mm/min up to a strain of 15%. Also, samples of soil with a moisture content of 7% and a relative density of 30% (as already mentioned) have been restored. SEM analysis was carried out to determine the distribution of sediment between soil particles and EDX analysis in order to identify carbonate calcium sediment formation elements in improved soil samples, by scanning electron microscopy on Anzali sandy soil samples in before and after improvement conditions.
 
 
Conclusions
The effect of the increasing cohesive and cohesionless fines on the bio-treated process of sandy soil is the main subject of this research. For this purpose, three samples of clean sand, sand containing 30% clay and sand mixture with 30% silt in a relative density of 30% were treated with MICP method and their shear strength parameters were evaluated by direct shear test after 28 days of processing. Using the direct shear test and analyses of SEM and EDX data, the results are represented as below:
1.  The microbial sediment of carbonate calcium has greatly improved the resistance properties of all three soil samples.
2. A sample of clayey sand, in spite of a higher improvement compared to the other samples with an average shear strength of 113.7% in comparison to to its untreated state, it has the lowest shear strength among the three improved samples.
3. Increasing the clay content of 30% increases the soil voids. On the other hand, it reduces the friction angle and shear strength of the soil in the pre-treated state and also facilitates easier movement of the bacteria between the pores in the soil. More favorable distribution of sediment calcium carbonate was occurred and, as a result, increased adhesion between soil particles.
4. The increase of cohesionless fine particles creates more bonding points between sand particles and, therefore, calcium carbonate crystals form shorter distances between the soil bridges. As a result, with the end of the improvement process, the shear strength parameters of the sandy soil containing 30% of the silt compared to the clean sand have a higher value.
5. SEM images of the clean sand in both before and after improvement show that the calcium carbonate precipitation occurred with a uniform and thin layer that surrounds sand grains and another part of the sediments formed in the joint of grains.
6. Cube-shaped crystalline sediments confirm that the sediment formed in the soil is a stable type of calcite and that the relative increase in the friction angle of the improvement samples can be attributed to solid particles and multifaceted sediments. Also, the elements of carbon, oxygen, and calcium, which are the main components for the formation of calcium carbonate deposits, have been found in the EDX analysis of improvement sand samples../files/site1/files/124/7sohrabi%DA%86%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%87.pdf
 

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An accurate study of the physical-chemical properties of soil has a significant effect on the determination of mechanical parameters, classification and evaluation of soils, and the civil project management aspects. The obtained accurate results of the chemical parameters of soil can determine the type and amount of cement or lime used in stabilizing the problematic soils, which leads to better estimation of sub-channel substrate consolidation behavior, accuracy in engineering designs, and so on. Previous researches showed that the chemical changes such as increasing soil solutes are one of the affecting factors on the change of the mechanical parameters of the soil [1-3]. In this study, the effect of the waves on the saturated paste and the saturation extract was presented as a novel method in order to determine the soil chemical parameters as well as the soil dispersivity potential more precisely. Also, the effect of the waves on the arid and semi-arid regions can be considered as one of the environmental parameters affecting the solubility of solutes in the saturated soil and pre estimated dispersive and semi-dispersive of the soils../files/site1/files/152/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%AE%DB%8C.pdf