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Azraqi Heravi is one of the great poets of the fifth and sixth centuries who is ranked often as a minor poet. In this paper, the researcher reports a study of the data related to this poet and his life, and, discussing the style of his writing and the innovations he introduces in his poetry, he tries to show that because of these very innovations Heravi is equal to some of his contemporaries if not superior to them. This paper discusses different aspects of his poetry such as his thought, imagination, emotion, language, music and form and gives some evidence to illustrate each of these elements and technical aspects.

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In Sufi terminology, Shat'h is a series of aesthetic words expressed involuntarily by mystics during the mystical experiences. There have been multifarious interpretations and judgments concerning these paradoxes ranging from linguistic and epistemic interpretations to religious ones. The Sufis and their opponents have also voiced their diametrically opposing views on  this issue. The present study addresses the traditional Sufi doctrines as well as what has been suggested about the various aspects of  Shat'h including its ambiguity, its relationship to poetry, and its paradoxicality as argued by the contemporaries. The central issue of concern  is whether these aesthetic words carry more emotional or epistemic content. Another impetus behind this research is to probe whether the linguistic expression of these words is indeed a representation of a special form of life. A deep understanding of these words requires a certain affinity and empathy with this form of life without which it's hardly possible to see the hidden meanings of the words. Thus, it is argued that the justification of Shat'h is more importand than its explanation.

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Dominance is one of the most vital and creative key terms which bounds up with the linguistic approach to formalism. According to critics’ definitions, “Dominance” has the potential to govern the elements of structure.  It is palpable to that the consistency of structure and coherence is indebted to “Dominance” so that we can argue that  comprehensiveness of this element is a kind of guaranty for understanding the elegancy of form and structure of poems. This dominance rules over other elements of language poetry and locates them in the right position. We can maintain that  “dominance” emerges in the exterior aspects of structure through symbols, repetition of lines, and mottos, proverbs, and other kinds of repetition. Furthermore, “Dominance” has some crucial functions which are extremely imperative for recognizing external aspect of pomes. To enrich the orchestration, making a skeleton for structure, monotone, fragmentation of structure, open end ness of poem, reasonable the verse and another important function. In this article, the functions of Dominance which is an essential element in the surface of contemporary poetry in Iran, will be fully discussed. 

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The presence of Arabs in Iran and continuation of this presence for almost 3 centuries in this country has had fundamental effects on Iranian language and literature. Most of researchers have analyzed this fact form the negative view point. In this study we try, by making use of sufficient reasons and from a positive point of view, to show that despite lack of Iranian literature in this era (early Hijri centuries), it can't be construed that we had absolute silence of Iranian literature, yet Iranian language and literature in a dynamic and complex way passed a progressive period in a way that it paved the way for growth of Iranian poetry and literature in the following centuries. Although Iran lost its Pahlavi writing system in this era but with passing of time and along with capabilities of Iranians, Farsi language was born and with widespread use of  Arabic writing system  as an effective and simple  instrument (in comparison with other writing systems)  which thanks to  acceptance of Islam  and wide spread use nationwide , Farsi language  became Iranian national language with the support of independent  rulers. In fact in this era the relation of Iran and Arabs by passing many ups and downs in a bilateral benefit, in one hand caused the unity of language among Iranians and their use of a modern language and its spread and in the other hand, with presence of Iranian elites in expansion of Arabian poetry, valuable services has been paid to Arabic language and Arabic language has passed a progressive era.

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Communication is one of the main functions of language. Linguistic communication usually combines with other modes of interaction such as nonverbal communication. People’s nonverbal behaviors display their styles and personality characteristics. Therefore, the fictionists and historians tend to reflect the quality and quantity of the character’s nonverbal relationship in their narration. The present study examines the adventure of Hanging of the Hasanak Minister in Tarikh-e Beyhaqi in order to show how Beyhaqi succeeds to imagine, objectify and portray the events of Qaznavi's periods and how it could improve the dramatic capacity of historical text with accuracy in nonverbal communication using a descriptive-analytical method and an interdisciplinary approach. This study displays that Beyhaqi often uses nonverbal communication in order to complete the verbal communication; but in many cases, they are replaced by verbal behavior or control the verbal behaviors.

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In Persian language and generally in all other languages connectives are considered among the most important devices in the coherence of texts. However, there are some other elements such as adverbs and prepositions that operate in the text and function like conjunctions. These are only a few of the elements that connect sentences in a text to each other. We can classify these elements from different perspectives. One of these perspectives isHalliday’s functional theory. In his theoryHalliday calls the semantic, verbal, syntactic and logical connections of the sentences in text coherence. From this point of view, in addition to connectives, the other factors that affect the coherence of the text are reference, displacement, elision, and lexical cohesion. Because of the extent of the subject, the researchers in this article study only one of these factors, namely connection. Among different factors of connection, only non-temporal connectives that include simple, compound, explicative and allegorical connectives; contrastive connection factors including simple and compound connectives; and causal connection factors such as the common and reverse will be studied.

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Many researchers in the field of socio-linguistics, sociology and feminism have done research on the principle of language showing that there are some differences between the language of men and women. The question is that whether gender plays any role in literary language(poetry) and besides phonetic, lexical and syntactic levels of language ifimages, such as simile and metaphor, are gender-oriented and are influenced by the mentality of women poets.In this researchthe influence of gender on the use of simile and metaphor in the poetry of ten contemporary Iranian women poets have been studied. First, one or two collections of the poetry of these poets have been randomly chosen, and secondthe two main figures of simile and metaphor have been analyzed in respect of gender. It is concluded that due to differences between men and women, such as their social and biological background, women poets use gender-oriented similes and metaphors. Moreover, they use these types of similes and metaphors to express their romantic and sensual-emotional tendencies.

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Hebrew-Persian texts are texts which are Persian in language but have written in Hebrew characters. These texts belong to the third century AD and have been written before the Arabic-Persian texts. This is why many of the phonetic, morphological and syntactical features of themiddle period have been kept in Hebrew-Persian texts.One of the major grammatical features that have been preserved in Hebrew-Persian literature isthe specific application ofprepositionssuch asōandpa(d) in middle Persian manner. Someprepositionssuch as ' b'z find new meaning in Hebrew-Persian texts. Someprepositionslike'zmrare foundonly in Hebrew-Persian literature. Since there are no prepositionsinformalmodern Persian, this study can reveal theevolution oftheprepositionsfromthe middleperiodtomodernperiod. In thisarticle, it is shown how the prepositionswhich had remained from themiddlePersianperiodareaffected bythe formalmodern Persianprepositions andgraduallymiddle Persianand Persian prepositions are replaced bymodern Persianprepositions.

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One of the new questions that should be studied and discussed in novel is the relationship between language and gender. In this paper, which is an interdisciplinary research, the researchers relying on sociolinguistic studies, especially Lykaf’s theory, intend to study the relationship between language and gender in Shabhaye Tehran and discuss the influence of the gender of the author of the novel on its language and the achievement of the novelist in introducing a language appropriate to the gender of the characters.For this purpose, the language of the male and female characters in the novel has been studied on the basis ofcertain variables, such as the use of standard language, imperative sentences, interrupted speeches, collaborative and competitive dialogues, and finally decisiveness and subjugation. The findings show that the language of the characters is influenced by the author's gender. The elements of feminine language have been repeated with a higher frequency and the author in many ways succeeded in creating a language appropriate to the gender of the characters. The deviation of some variables from linguistic standards indicates the feministic tendencies of the author.

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Zeidari Nasavi’s Nafsat al-Masdoor is one of the few works which are written in technical prose and mainly aim at conveying meaning rather than affection. Considering the emotional strain of his literary text, Zeidari believes music has the highest effect on conveying the feeling, and in various ways, including the use of elements of prosody, literary figures, and the selection and arrangement of the terms in Paradigmatic and syntagmatic ways, he creates a musical effect in his text. Thus, by working on his style and manner of writing and by employing different diction not only he created music in the text, but also because of the dominance of music, the meaning has changed. This method of writing made him to be more careful in choosing his words, for the changes he affected in the standard language have been the effect of vocal arrangements and defamiliarization. This has also made his work on history more imaginative and closer to lyric literature and poetry.

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Feministic criticism concerns the function of specific feminine cultural and ideological constituents in literal works. In its approach to narrative this kind of criticism follows two methods. First, the attributes of women and their role and personality in course of the story, and second a critique of women presented which studies female authors. Sorkhi-e-to az man by Sepedeh Shamlu is one the feministic novels, which concerns the world of women in recent years. It has attracted the attention of many readers interested in Persian contemporary novel. Considering the importance of this novel in the process of feministic narrative writing of post-revolutionary Iran, this paper attempts to explore the elements of feministic narrative following an analytic-descriptive method. The findings of this paper show that this modern novel seeks to cast doubt on the differences of men and women through a deconstruction method. The female characters of the novel consider their identity and situation to be molded by imposed patriotic social relations, which are created by men and the dominance of masculine language. By considering the beliefs, worldviews, emotions, privet parts, women’s feelings of disgust and fear, lewdness, objection to masculine gaze, choosing short sentences, etc. in the text the researchers attempt to highlight the feminine style of writing.

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Contemporary poetry can be divided into the poetry of before and after the Islamic Revolution. Among the post-revolutionary poetry, the Pishro or avant-garde Poetry is the most important style of poetry. The well-known figure of this kind of poetry is Reza Baraheni (1935- ) who became the most influential poet of the Post-Revolution Poetry with the publication of his Khetab be Parvane ha and introducing his literary ideas in different articles. Baraheni attempts in his poetic theory, which is known as lingual theory, to reach multilingualism in poetry, multiplicity of forms and language, disintegration of meaning, disintegration of narrative, disintegration of grammar, formalism, and disintegration of description. In the present study, topics such as morphological innovations and morphological and syntactic deviations in Khetab be Parvane ha are studied. As a result, deviations in these poems are divided into two: the successful linguistic part where Baraheni manages to bring some new words into Persian language without disturbing its morphological structure, and the unsuccessful syntactic part where all the rules governing the sentence have been disturbed.

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The modern literary movement in Iranian fiction writing is the most important movement in Iranian literature and the best author in this movement could be noted as Bijan Najdi. He was an anarchist and Empiricist author. Najdi’s stories are full of metaphors and similes, a trait which makes the language of his stories closer to the language of poetry and givessuch a stylistic distinction to his works that he is considered in Persian literature as the founder of poetic fiction. The most important factors that mark Najdi’s stories as modern stories are elements such as poetic language, use of time gaps and penetration of  the mind of his characters. In this paper surveying the narrative elements of "An Indian in Astara", we demonstrate that the story is a modern story and that Najdi employs modern narrativeelements, such as confrontation of life and death, imagination and reality, and acceptance of the situation and idealism, in order to express his ideas and the intellectual foundations of his thoughts.

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Non-verbal communications could be a part of visual signs that, because of their importance in interpersonal relationships and transition of meaning, are highly regarded by psychologists and sociologists. One of the major subdivisions of this topic is called "Body Language" that has existed in all human societies since ancient times. These non-verbal signs, some thousands of years old, have cultural and rhetorical functions, with common and sometimes conflicting aspects, in the cultures and social traditions of different tribes. The more ancient and comprehensive the literary context of a piece of research is, the more valuable that analysis in explaining the cultural, social, and even aesthetic aspects of texts will be. Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, as a representative of Iranian culture and thought in prehistoric age up until the Islamic era, can be the best representation of metalingual communicative performance in Iranian cultural history. Due to the prototypic nature of characters in Shahnameh, many of their non-verbal signs can also be considered the archetypal source of the behavioral interactions or body language of the Iranian people when in the context of epic their national and social identities as Iranians are formed. In this article, attempts has been made to decode these obscure and complex cultural concepts by exploring the "body language" in non-linguistic acts of main characters in Shahnameh. The results of this research demonstrate that the body language of characters in Shahnameh is not accidental but totally conscious. Indeed, the purpose has been to draw the attention of the readers to rethink the patterns of individual and social behavior of Iranian and non-Iranian ethnicities so to recognize the cultural identity mainly through irony and symbolism.

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The Reduplications are made by repeating part of the base. The repeated part does not make sense and will never be used alone and is just popular in spoken language. In recent times, they have been used in some texts of poetry and prose, in particular, in stories written in vernacular. This research, with a historical approach, and with an analytical-explanatory method, examines the information obtained from literary and historical sources; and while analyzing the use of reduplication in Persian language and literature, it investigates three hypotheses: first, the effect of the changing of the face and meaning of the ancient Persian vocabulary on the formation of reduplication in Persian language; second, the effect of the Arabic syntax on the formation of reduplication in Persian language; and third, the effect of Arabic vocabulary and synonyms on the formation of reduplication in Persian language and literature
According to the findings of this research, the history of the use of reduplication dates back to the thirteenth century AH. Most of the compositions, from the first to the thirteenth century AH, are seen in poetic and prose works, and the writers of dictionaries have described them as examples of reduplication but in fact they are synonyms connected by conjunctives which due to a change of face and passage of time are mistakenly claimed to be reduplication. Reduplication has been introduced into Persian language since the thirteenth century AH. This was due to the prevalence of Arabic vocabulary in Persian language and also people’s habits of using synonyms in speaking. Along with developments in Persian prose and the tendency of writers to simplification and vernacularism, these compositions were introduced into Persian texts, especially satirical fictional works. 

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One of the Prose styles of the contemporary world is focused on the reflection of the outer world on the world of the story. This is widely used in the works of realist and naturalist Iranian writers. Sadegh Chubak, one of the prominent contemporary writers, has achieved a unique language by presenting the reality in his artistic prose. The aim of this research is to analyze the process of creating the meaning of reality in paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes. By an analytical-critical method and with the help of relevant theoreticians in this field, the author has analyzed Chubak’s realist-naturalist prose to highlight the features of naturalism in his prose as an artistic style of writing. It is concluded that Chubak’s writing is artistic and is far and beyond the hackneyed referential prose styles usually associated with naturalism.
 

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There are hypotheses in the history of human culture and civilization in which we can find undeniable similarities and commonalities among them, despite their vastly different cultural and historical contexts. For example, finding commonalities between the language of two artistic aesthetic hypotheses, Sufism and Surrealism, which are very different from each other in terms of context, time as well as cultural and historical emergence, is so difficult. Our main issue in this paper is that there are undeniable similarities between these two hypotheses. This is done by means of a descriptive analytical method and comparative literature approach, particularly in American mode of it, whose aim is to study literature across the borders of given territory and research about the relation among literatures and any other epistemic areas such as art, history and philosophy. We found several common aspects between the languages of these two movements. For example, they use rebelliousness and innovative imagination, symbolism, dream, subconscious mind, love, satire, automatic writing, and madness. They also both guide humans to what is superior and profound.
 

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Communication includes all the ways that human beings can influence others. This involves not only speaking or writing, but also all human behavior in various ways, so there are two types of communicational signs that human beings use: verbal and non-verbal signs. In communication science, special attention has been paid to how non-verbal signs influence message transmission. The research has shown that a large proportion of messages are transmitted to others through non-verbal signs. In poetry, the poet uses both verbal and nonverbal signs to be more effective in relation to the audience, but often in the analysis of poetry, the focus is on the verbal signs. Mehdi Akhavan-Sales is one of the most remarkable poets of contemporary narrative poetry whose specific characteristic of his poetry makes it suitable to use the non-verbal signs. In this study, the use of non-verbal communicational signs has been discussed to answer the following questions: Which non-verbal signs did Mehdi Akhavan-Sales use in his poetic images? What induces non-verbal signs in his poetry? Is there a significant relationship between the signs of non-verbal communication and the dominant thought of Akhavan in his poems? This study shows that Akhavan transmitted some of the concepts and messages in his poetry by depicting non-verbal signs related to the eyes, hands, feet, head and neck, lips, mouths, etc. The frequency of using these signs is higher in poems that have narrative features. The messages conveyed by these signs are often sadness, fear, concern, anxiety, uncertainty, and despondency. The high frequency of false smiles and the frequent use of phonetic messages of silence indicate that duplicity, and improbity made his poetic atmosphere full of despair. The use of these signs shows that instead of explaining a feeling or trying to convey a message, he presents an effective poem to the audience in a succinct manner.
 

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The use of ambiguity and amphibology in speech, by arranging the setting for multiplicity of significations and delaying the process of meaning comprehension, leaves a significant impression on the creation of  artistic aspects of the literary work and to the extent that the speech is free of such expressive techniques, it turns into a single meaning proposition, and its artistic worth is diminished. In this paper, based on such a presupposition, we have revisited the poems of Hazin Lahiji (1103-1180 A.H.) and examined the multiplicity of significations in his poems at both lexical and textual levels. At the lexical level, some figures of speech such as amphibology and its types, coincidence, and derivative puns pass beyond the limits of significations of the couplet and open new horizons of meaning to the audience. This study confirms that 192 cases of amphibologies were used in his poem. At both the sentence and couplet levels we classified the types of ambiguities and multiplicity of significations and the causes of their emergence into three categories of linguistic, logical and tonal and in each category we investigated and analyzed the techniques used by the poet to create ambiguity and various significations.  
 

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In Modern Persian, different forms of the verb “goftan” (meaning “to say”) are used as grammatical tools for denoting modality. Some of these forms such as “gu”, “gu’i”, “gofti”, “gu’iyâ” and “guyâ” went through historical changes and were used as modal adverbs in Persian literary texts and among them, “gu’i” and “guyâ” are still common. In Modern Persian, there are other forms of the verb “goftan” such as “begu”, “nagu” and “begu’i”, which function as modals in certain contexts. In this paper, we studied the semantic features of the verb “goftan” in texts belonging to different stages of Persian language from Old Persian to Modern Persian and we also tracked the process of grammaticalization of certain forms of the verb “goftan” to show how they changed into modal adverbs. Based on our findings, “gu’i” has been used for purposes such as simile and allegory to represent imaginary and unreal statements and “guyâ” has had a modal role to represent doubt and uncertainty of the speaker. Both forms are still in use. Moreover, some forms of the verb “goftan” are in the middle stages of grammaticalization. These forms represent the modalities of inference, conjecture, assumption, and imagination, but some of them are gradually losing their verbal characteristics and are changing into adverbs to represent modality.