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The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the type of goal setting and self-recording on acquisition and self-regulation learning of basketball free throw. Seventy middle school student boys were selected for available and randomly allocated to 6 experimental groups and one control group. A factor ANOVA with a significant level of 5% (p < 0.05) was conducted to analyze the self-efficacy and performance data in acquisition and retention tests. The results showed that the goal-setting with the self-recording group has a higher self-efficacy and performance than the goal-setting without self-recording and the control groups in acquisition and retention test of basketball free throw. This research showed that a variety of goals can begin to combine and cause positive results in performance and learning. Self-recording is important for performance and self-efficacy and can be easily taught and used during physical education sessions.

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The purpose of the present study was to determine the role of errorless and error full training on aiming task learning of normal teens and intellectual disability ones. 20 intellectual disability teenagers were selected from an exceptional school and 20 normal children from the Normal school in Ardebil in the range of 11 to 13 years old (M = 12, SD = 0.8). Normal and intellectual disability individuals were randomly assigned to two errorless and error full training groups according to Wechsler's intelligence test and Alloway's working memory test. The task was to throw basketball balls in the form of a chest pass to the targets with concentric circles. These goals were set at the height of the people's chest in the wall. The subjects performed 200 exercise attempts at the acquisition stage in five training blocks. Single and dual task transfer tests were carried out immediately, 24-hour latency and one week's delay. The data were analyzed using two way repeated measures analysis of variance analysis (ANOVA). The findings showed that the group had the least memory involvement and the least error in both subjects type, in the single task test [P<0.05  and in the dual task test were better [P<0.05 . The normal errorless group was not better than the intellectual disability errorless group, but the normal error full group was better than the intellectual disability error full group. The findings of this study are consistent with the Adam's closed loop theory, the reinvestment theory, and somewhat consistent with the estimates of the challenge point framework regarding the error in the acquisition stage, but these findings are somewhat contradictory with the estimates of the schema theory.

 

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    Motor performance and optimization is one of the most important goals of sports science professionals. Vision skills affect athletic performance and the acquisition of motor skills, which can be improved by practice. The purpose of study was to investigate the effect of visual and skill training on visual and performance skills, retention and transfer of Badminton backhand short service. 20 female students were randomly divided into two groups of 10 combined and skill. Depending on their type of training, the groups performed visual and skill training for 6 weeks. Before and after training, visual and performance tests, retention and transfer of backhand short service were done by the participants. For data analysis, t-test and mixed ANOVA analysis were used with a significant level of 0.05. The analysis indicated that there was a significant difference between groups in visual skills (p =0.00). The combined group had a significant improvement in perfomance, retention and transfer of the service (p = 0.00). Also, checking the interactive effect of time and type of training showed that the combined group was more advanced than the skill group (p = 0.00). The results of this study show the combined effects of vision and sports more than the individual trainings of vision and sports, and according to the results of the study, it is suggested that visual training be included as a supplementary training program in the Badminton field exercise.

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The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of learning methods analogy  and explicit on the skill of the prediction service in volleyball at the time fatigue. To this purpose, 40 female students , with the range of age 18 to 24 years for the sample sampling and a simple random in four groups: learning to manifest peppy, learning explicit tired, learning analogy  peppy and learning analogy tired were divided. Participants of the group learn the analogy method of simulating skills and group learning explicit from the traditional method to performing the service, hammer, volleyball. To apply the fatigue protocol Lee Owens was used. Also, to predict the extent, accuracy, and speed of execution of the participants of the software super lab was used. Data were analyzed using the test of analysis of variance two-way analysis of was.  The results showed that, the effect of fatigue, the type of practice, and the interactive effect of fatigue - training on the speed prediction in the efforts to correct and the impact of fatigue , the type of training , and the interactive effect of fatigue-training  on the speed prediction in efforts mistake was not significant. But the interactive effect of fatigue - practice the accuracy of prediction in the efforts to correct the (p=0/002), and the effect of the type of exercises in the wrong attempts (P=0/019) was significant. According to the results it can be said that the effect of fatigue on the accuracy of prediction depends on the type of learning (learning analogy) is an adopted person.
 

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The purpose of this study was to examine the role of structured conversation and observation on the effectiveness of the dyed practice on motivation and the accuracy in learning the skill of Golf putt. The research participants consisted of 40 female students randomly divided into four groups: observation-conversation, observation, conversation and control. Participants should hit the Golf ball to the target area. During the training period, subjects completed 60 acquisition attempts, 10 retention attempts to measure the participants’ motivation before the beginning of the training and before the acquisition and retention phases. one-way ANOVA and to examine the role of the mediator on the accuracy of the scores of execution Hayes test was used. The results showed that motivational values were significantly higher in conversation-observation group compared to other groups, and  also The mediation role of motivation was not significant in the implementation of acquisition and retention efforts. Regarding the results of this study, coaches are advised to consider both verbal and observational information sources in the presentation of dyed practice.

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​Many studies have shown the effectiveness of verbal instructions and observational training on the improvement of children’s motor skills; however, there is not enough information about the simultaneous effects of these two variables. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of attention instructions during observation of the model on gaze behavior and accuracy of overarm throwing in children. 24 children 7 to 10 years of age with normal growth selected purposefully and randomly divided into two internal and external attentions during modeling groups. Training in both groups included observation 10 times skilled model overarm throwing’s film with eye movement recording, with the difference that before it each group received its own instruction. The results of mix-ANOVA and paired and independent t-tests showed that both groups showed a significant increase from the pre-test to post-test in the accuracy (p=0.001; p=0.001) and duration of the quiet eye (p=0.005; p=0.001) of overarm throwing. In the post-test, the external attention during modeling group compared to the internal attention during modeling had significantly higher accuracy (p=0.01) and longer quiet eye duration (p=0.001). Also, the external attention during modeling had more percentage viewing time to relevant external cues (ball and trajectory). Therefore, directing visual attention to movement effect of observed pattern cause improvement in motor performance and visual-motor expertise in children.

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Inclusive education refers to the placement of people with disabilities alongside their peers. Recent studies have found this method to be effective when it comes to manipulating the environment. The study investigated the effects of an inclusive education learning method applied in an extracurricular physical education to promote self-esteem and motor proficiency in a child with developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The research is a critical case study that involved one obese boy with DCD (age =8 years, height=127 cm and weight =33 kg) who participated in physical education activities with 14 other children without disability over a period of 9 weeks. Three tools, Cooper Smith self-esteem questionnaire, developmental coordination disorder questionnaire and Bruininks-Oseretsky-2 test and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. Results of semi-structured interviews showed independence, belief, pleasure, family relationships, educational relationships, and social relationships improved. The Cooper Smith questionnaire also showed general (10 score), family (5 score), social (4 score), and educational self-esteem (6 score) increased. While motor proficiency increased (9 score), the body mass index decreased (1.24 score). Results emphasized the importance of applying nonlinear pedagogy in physical education by manipulating the environment and the task without direct instructions and feedback in inclusive settings.

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The purpose of present study was to investigate the role of motor learning strategies (linear, non-linear, and differential) in the experience of flow and clutch in beginner footballers. Participants (66, M age= 27.49 and SD =2.68) participated in this study voluntarily and based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants practiced in three groups: linear, nonlinear, and differential, for three months, two sessions each week and each session one and a half hours. The study method was quantitative and qualitative. In the quantitative part, flow and clutch questionnaire was used and in the qualitative part a semi-structured interview was used. The results of Tukey showed nonlinear pedagogy was effective in flow experience and linear method in clutch experience (p<0.05). In the differential learning, flow was experienced more than linear method (p<0.05) and less than non-linear method (p>0.05). In the qualitative part, four factors of purpose, pleasure, effort and exploration are identified that support the results of the quantitative part. Based on the results of this study, nonlinear and differential methods are effective in the flow experience and linear method are effective in the clutch experience.

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Using auditory concurrent feedback with the goal of gaze path learning is one of the novelty methods in the attention field. The present study aimed to determine the effect of bisensory feedback using eye movement sonification on the decision-making of the badminton clear shot direction. In a Semi experimental strategy, with pre-post design without a control group and clinical method, participants performed recognizing the direction of the shot under unisensory and bisensory training conditions. Response accuracy, response time, and fixation duration were measured in the pre-test, immediate retention, and delayed retention. The results showed that in the immediate and delayed retention, the bisensory group had higher response accuracy and shorter response time than the unisensory group. The bisensory group had a longer fixation duration in key areas than the unisensory group in both times. The use of auditory feedback can probably be considered as a way to improve decision-making skills at the novice level.

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The aim of this study was to compare the effect of training type (full-error and error-less) and skill level on the development of mental representation of putt golf skill. For this purpose, 44 undergraduate physical education students (22 women, 22 men; mean age 22.34 and standard deviation 4.37) were randomly divided into two groups: error-less (near-to-far) and full-error (far-to-near). The two groups practiced in the one-day acquisition phase of 3 blocks of 10 attempts for throwing distances (25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150 and 200 cm). The error-less group started training from the closest distance to the goal and reached the farthest distance, respectively, but the full-error group started training from the farthest distance and finally reached the closest distance. At the end, they were tested immediately. One day after the acquisition phase, delayed retention tests, single task transfer (from a distance of 225 cm) and dual task transfer (from a distance of 200 cm simultaneously with audio playback) were performed. To compare the effect of error-less and full-error training on the acquisition, retention and transfer of putt golf skills, data analysis of the acquisition stage was analyzed by repeated measures analysis of variance (2×8). SDA-M test was used to measure the structure of mental representations formed in the two groups before and after the acquisition period, and hierarchical cluster analysis  0.05) was used to analyze the mental representations.  Our Findings showed significant functional changes in the post-exercise mental representation structure, suggesting that motor skills are associated with functional adaptation of action-related knowledge in long-term memory.

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Video feedback is a type of augmented feedback that includes showing an athlete or performing a skill with a video clip of oneself or another person performing a particular skill. The aim of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of dyad training with video feedback on learning crawl swimming. For this purpose, 24 male students ranging in age from 11 to 17 years, who had no previous experience in learning crawl swimming, formed two groups of 12 people in dual practice and dyad training with video feedback. Both groups were first justified by the instructor, then in the double exercise group, one of the trainees entered the water and the other watched him perform out of the water, and after trying, they reviewed the mistakes and movements with their friend. in the dyad rehearsal group, one of the friends filmed another performance and showed it to him. The training intervention lasted for 8 sessions and 10 training attempts in each session. After the end of the eighth session, the 10-meter breast crawl swimming acquisition test was performed, and then a reminder test was performed again one week later and filmed. The results showed that the two groups had significant differences in both acquisition and retention, and the dyad training group with video feedback performed better overall. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the dyad training with video feedback method, in addition to being cost-effective in terms of energy consumption and training space, is also more effective than dyad training in swimming training.

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This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of basic taekwondo exercises on the executive functions of children with a learning disorder. For this purpose, 20 boys aged 10 to 12 years with learning disorder in Mashhad were selected and randomly assigned to training and control groups. The training group practiced Taekwondo for 12 sessions, each session lasting 50 minutes, repeating three days a week. The control group also engaged in their normal daily activities during this period. Changes in subjects' cognitive functions were measured before and after the training period by the N-back and the Tower of London tests. Analysis of variance with repeated measures was used for statistical analysis. The results showed that basic taekwondo exercises improve executive functions in the training group; All these changes were significant compared to the control group (p<0/05). Therefore, based on the results of the present study, it can be concluded that basic taekwondo exercises help to improve the executive functions of children with learning disorder by affecting brain areas related to executive functions.