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The purpose of the present study was to determine the role of errorless and error full training on aiming task learning of normal teens and intellectual disability ones. 20 intellectual disability teenagers were selected from an exceptional school and 20 normal children from the Normal school in Ardebil in the range of 11 to 13 years old (M = 12, SD = 0.8). Normal and intellectual disability individuals were randomly assigned to two errorless and error full training groups according to Wechsler's intelligence test and Alloway's working memory test. The task was to throw basketball balls in the form of a chest pass to the targets with concentric circles. These goals were set at the height of the people's chest in the wall. The subjects performed 200 exercise attempts at the acquisition stage in five training blocks. Single and dual task transfer tests were carried out immediately, 24-hour latency and one week's delay. The data were analyzed using two way repeated measures analysis of variance analysis (ANOVA). The findings showed that the group had the least memory involvement and the least error in both subjects type, in the single task test [P<0.05  and in the dual task test were better [P<0.05 . The normal errorless group was not better than the intellectual disability errorless group, but the normal error full group was better than the intellectual disability error full group. The findings of this study are consistent with the Adam's closed loop theory, the reinvestment theory, and somewhat consistent with the estimates of the challenge point framework regarding the error in the acquisition stage, but these findings are somewhat contradictory with the estimates of the schema theory.

 

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The aim of this study was to compare the effect of training type (full-error and error-less) and skill level on the development of mental representation of putt golf skill. For this purpose, 44 undergraduate physical education students (22 women, 22 men; mean age 22.34 and standard deviation 4.37) were randomly divided into two groups: error-less (near-to-far) and full-error (far-to-near). The two groups practiced in the one-day acquisition phase of 3 blocks of 10 attempts for throwing distances (25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150 and 200 cm). The error-less group started training from the closest distance to the goal and reached the farthest distance, respectively, but the full-error group started training from the farthest distance and finally reached the closest distance. At the end, they were tested immediately. One day after the acquisition phase, delayed retention tests, single task transfer (from a distance of 225 cm) and dual task transfer (from a distance of 200 cm simultaneously with audio playback) were performed. To compare the effect of error-less and full-error training on the acquisition, retention and transfer of putt golf skills, data analysis of the acquisition stage was analyzed by repeated measures analysis of variance (2×8). SDA-M test was used to measure the structure of mental representations formed in the two groups before and after the acquisition period, and hierarchical cluster analysis  0.05) was used to analyze the mental representations.  Our Findings showed significant functional changes in the post-exercise mental representation structure, suggesting that motor skills are associated with functional adaptation of action-related knowledge in long-term memory.

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The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of cyberspace dependence on the explicit and implicit motor sequence learning task. For this purpose, the number of 48 subjects aged 16 to 19, were selected as available and was divided in four groups (12 people) including cyberspace dependent - explicit motor learning, cyberspace dependent - implicit motor learning, normal - explicit motor learning and normal - implicit motor learning. Kimberly Young's internet addiction test was used to distinguish between normal and cyber-addicted people, and SRTT software was used to check participants' learning. The data were analyzed using the mixed analysis of variance test with repeated measures. The findings showed that cyberspace dependence had a significant effect on the explicit and implicit motor sequence learning task, so that there was a significant difference between the two groups of cyberspace dependent and normal peers in the explicit and implicit learning motor sequence task. Normal people performed better in both explicit and implicit conditions than cyberspace dependent participants. According to the findings, it is suggested to reduce the excessive use of virtual space in the students by creating energetic movement programs in schools.