SPACE ECONOMY & RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Explaining the Efficiency of the Water, Energy, and Food Nexus in Rice Farms of Sari County

Fatemeh Razzaghi Borkhani

Objective: This study aimed to develop a model to improve the efficiency of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus in rice farming in Sari County.
Method: The research was conducted using a quantitative, survey-based approach and falls under the category of applied studies. The statistical population consisted of 25,590 rice farmers in Sari County, with a sample size of 170 farmers, determined using G-Power software. A multi-stage stratified sampling method with proportional allocation was employed. Data collection was conducted through a researcher-made questionnaire, whose face and content validity were confirmed by experts. The reliability of the research tool was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Data analysis was performed using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to evaluate the efficiency of the WEF nexus.
Results: The findings indicate that the efficiency index of the WEF nexus among the studied rice farms was 0.198, reflecting very poor efficiency in rice production. Specific observations include: 70% of the studied units exhibited unsatisfactory nexus efficiency; A negative correlation was found between the amount of water and energy consumed and the nexus efficiency index; Larger-scale farms demonstrated higher nexus efficiency, while smaller farms exhibited lower efficiency levels; There was a positive correlation between the nexus efficiency index and farm size, suggesting that economies of scale positively influence efficiency.
Conclusion: The study highlights significant inefficiencies in the WEF nexus within rice farming in Mazandaran Province, specifically regarding water and energy consumption. Key conclusions include: The amount of rice produced relative to water and energy consumption is low, indicating substantial resource wastage; Optimization of water and energy use is critical to enhancing nexus efficiency without compromising crop production or food security; Tailored strategies are required to address regional differences and align cropping patterns with local climatic and weather conditions.
To improve WEF nexus efficiency, the following recommendations are proposed:

Agricultural Zoning: Implement zoning strategies based on regional climate and conditions to optimize cropping patterns.
Extension-Education Programs: Develop training initiatives for farmers, focusing on efficient farm management practices.
Demonstration Farms: Promote exemplary farms as models for best practices through demonstration sites, model farms, and farmer field schools.

These measures aim to reduce resource wastage and improve sustainability in rice production while ensuring food security in the region.

Rural Digital Hub Adoption Model Based on Grounded Theory Approach (Case Study: Kurdistan Province)

zeynab aeeni

Objective: In recent years, rural digital hubs have emerged as platforms capable of fostering the long-term sustainable development of villages by leveraging digital capabilities. However, in Iran, the lack of awareness about these centers has hindered their full potential from being realized.
Methods: This study aims to identify the factors and conditions influencing the adoption of digital innovation hubs in rural areas. To achieve this, a qualitative approach was employed, specifically using the grounded theory research strategy, to develop a framework for understanding the factors affecting the adoption of rural digital hubs. The study focuses on villages in Kurdistan Province. Data were collected through interviews with academic experts, government officials, and activists from non-governmental organizations, and analyzed using MAXQDA software.
Results: The findings are presented across the five dimensions of grounded theory. The study identifies:

Causal conditions: "Economic and socio-cultural shortcomings."
Contextual conditions: "Infrastructure, village structural characteristics, and demographic composition."
Intervening conditions: "Lack of policy integration, inefficient rural management, and speculative economic practices."
Strategies: "Identification of capacities, functions of digital hub centers, and pre-training initiatives."
Outcomes: "Cultural-social development, economic development, and enhanced political acumen."

Conclusion: By identifying the conditions influencing the adoption of these digital platforms, this study provides a foundation for designing and implementing effective policies to unlock the potential of rural digital hubs.

Explaining the Role of the Capacity of Modern Information Technologies in the Development of Smart Tourism (Case Study of Tourism Target Villages in Khorasan Razavi Province)

Amin Faal Jalali

Purpose
This research aims to investigate the impact of utilizing smart capabilities on improving rural tourism and addressing rural challenges in the target villages of Khorasan Razavi Province.
Method
The study’s statistical population comprised 261 tourists who either traveled to the villages or used virtual platforms to plan their visits. Due to the dispersed nature of the statistical population, a snowball sampling method was employed to select the sample. Data were collected through a questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS software, applying statistical tests. Additionally, to examine the impact of information and communication technologies (ICT) on the development of smart tourism in the studied villages, the PLS (Partial Least Squares) model was utilized.
Results
The findings indicate that existing tourism capacities have a direct and significant impact on the development of smart tourism. Among the evaluated components, smart transportation emerged as the most influential. Key aspects of smart transportation include online and offline routing, route traffic information, interstate services, and other related benefits. Following smart transportation, communication tools were identified as the second most effective component in fostering smart tourism. These tools include email, telephone, internet sites, and participation in messaging platforms or channels.
Additionally, the smart environment was found to play a significant role in the development of smart tourism. Features of the smart environment include the availability of robust antenna networks, internet connectivity at the village level, electronic banking services, and similar infrastructural advancements.
Conclusion
The results demonstrate that the average indicators related to virtual facilities in the studied villages exceed normal values. This indicates that the villages possess the necessary infrastructural and human resources to support the development of smart tourism. Furthermore, the analysis confirms that rural smart capabilities have a measurable impact on the advancement of smart tourism in the region.

Investigating the Sustainability of Fish Propagation and Breeding Cooperatives Case of Ahvaz County

Maryam Sharifzadeh

Objective: This study aimed to analyze the sustainability of fish propagation and breeding cooperatives, identifying the key factors influencing their sustainability. The goal was to provide solutions to enhance the effectiveness and longevity of these cooperatives.
Methods: This research was applied in nature and used a survey-based approach. A structured, researcher-made questionnaire was employed for data collection. The questionnaire’s validity was confirmed through content analysis by a panel of experts, while its reliability was assessed via a pilot study, yielding a Cronbach's alpha coefficient between 0.59 and 0.94. The study’s statistical population consisted of 454 members from 61 active fish propagation and breeding cooperatives in the central district of Ahvaz County. Using Morgan's table, a sample of 150 cooperative members was selected via simple random sampling. To explore the challenges faced by cooperatives, content analysis was conducted, focusing on 20 members from successful cooperatives, continuing until theoretical saturation was reached.
Results: The study found that the sustainability of fish propagation and breeding cooperatives was influenced by three main stages:

Feasibility and Design
Establishment and Exploitation
Cooperative Development

Key factors affecting sustainability in these stages included organizational identity, identical commitment, and the legal framework. The cooperatives were found to be vulnerable in several dimensions, particularly in terms of education, infrastructure, social dynamics, and economic conditions.
Conclusion: This study used a concurrent parallel design, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data to provide a comprehensive view of sustainability in fish breeding cooperatives. The quantitative analysis identified the primary predictors of sustainability, while the qualitative insights offered a deeper understanding of the contextual factors, such as the role of organizational identity and the emotional connections among members.
The findings highlighted the importance of education and social dynamics, revealing that sustainability extends beyond quantitative measures. This mixed-methods approach enriched the understanding of cooperative sustainability and emphasized the need for a holistic view of the factors that influence their long-term success.

Evaluation of the Effects of Mining Exploitation on Economic Indicators and Sustainability of the Rural Population Case Study: Bhogdakandi Rural District - Zanjan County

Mojtaba Hakimi

Objective: Mining is a critical environmental resource, with its primary and most significant impacts being economic. Subsequent effects arise later and are dependent on proper consideration and evaluation. When managed effectively, mining can contribute to the formation of value-added chains in other economic sectors and lay the foundation for achieving sustainable development goals. This research aims to examine the effects of mining exploitation on the economic indicators and population stability of rural areas in Boghdakandi district.
Methods: The research is applied in nature, employing a descriptive-analytical methodology. Data collection utilized library and field methods, including: Observation (general and individual), Interviews (structured) and Questionnaires (closed and Likert scale). The questionnaire's face validity was assessed by experts, and its reliability was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.802. The study’s statistical population comprised the households of Boghdakandi district, which, according to the 2015 census, included 2,227 households. Using Cochran's formula, the required sample size was calculated as 314 households. Data analysis involved both descriptive statistics (mean, frequency distribution, and standard deviation) and inferential statistical tests (One-sample T-test, Pearson Correlation, and Kruskal-Wallis test).
Results: The research findings reveal a significant relationship between mining exploitation and the economic indicators of the studied villages. Key results include:

Economic Indicators: Employment Index: Mean = 3.229; Income Index: Mean = 3.132; Natural Resources: Mean = 3.393; and Welfare: Mean = 3.431.

These values indicate a moderate impact of mining on economic indicators.

Population Stability: Population Stability Index: Mean = -2.763 and Capital Index: Mean = -2.742.

These indices are below average, suggesting that mining has had adverse effects on population stability.
Statistical yearbooks (2006–2016) highlight a declining population trend in all studied villages, except Saeed Kandi, which experienced a growth rate of 0.9%.
Conclusion: The study concludes that while mining exploitation in Boghdakandi district has moderately improved certain economic indicators (employment, income, natural resources, and welfare), it has had negative impacts on population stability and capital levels. The population decline observed across most villages underscores the inability of mining activities to positively influence long-term population stability. This suggests that while mining can contribute to economic growth in the short term, its sustainability requires more strategic management to balance economic benefits with social and demographic stability.

Tourism Development and Sustainable Rural Livelihoods A Case Study of Kurdistan Province

fateh habibi

Objective: The experience of many developed countries highlights that tourism development is a fundamental driver of national growth and should be prioritized accordingly. This research aims to investigate the impact of tourism on sustainable rural livelihoods in Kurdistan Province by comparing two groups: tourism-oriented villages and non-tourism villages.
Method: This study adopts a quasi-experimental design, comparing data from tourism and non-tourism villages. A questionnaire was employed to gather the necessary information. Using Cochran's formula, the sample size was determined to be 350 households, consisting of 203 heads of households from tourism villages and 147 heads of households from non-tourism villages. Participants were selected randomly. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS and Excel software, with the reliability of the questionnaire confirmed by a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.82.
Results:
1. Livelihood Conditions: The one-sample t-test revealed that the five livelihood capitals (human, social, physical, natural, and financial) in both groups of villages were below average and in poor condition.
2. Comparison of Capitals: An independent t-test showed that the average human and social capital and total investment were significantly higher in tourism villages compared to non-tourism villages.
3. Livelihood Strategies: A Friedman test identified the key livelihood activities in each group:

Tourism Villages: Gardening. Agriculture, Local food sales, Handicraft sales, Home rentals, Sales of local dairy products, and Sales of local clothing.
Non-Tourism Villages: Gardening, Agriculture, Local dairy product sales, Animal husbandry, and Labor.

Conclusion: The findings demonstrate a significant difference between tourism and non-tourism villages in terms of livelihood capitals: human, social, physical, natural, financial, and total. The average levels of human capital, social capital, and overall livelihood assets were higher in tourism villages. These results underscore the positive role of tourism in enhancing sustainable rural livelihoods, particularly by diversifying income sources and strengthening human and social capital. Prioritizing tourism development in rural areas can thus contribute to broader economic and social improvements.

Explaining the effects of mining on the sustainability of rural areas (Case study: Korani district of Bijar county)

abbas nabati

Objective: Mining offers significant economic opportunities for farmers and rural residents in Iran, supplementing their primary occupations in agriculture and animal husbandry. Given the country’s specific territorial conditions, mining activities can contribute to sustainable development and influence various dimensions of rural life. This study investigates the effects of mining on sustainable rural development in Karani District.
Methods: This study is applied in purpose and descriptive-analytical in method. Data collection was conducted through library research and fieldwork. The statistical population comprised 10 rural settlements in the Karani District with active mines in their surrounding areas. A total of 250 households were selected as the sample using the Cochran formula. Sustainability was assessed across three dimensions—environmental, social, and economic—using 40 indicators evaluated via a structured questionnaire. Data analysis was performed using the t-test and Mabak model, supported by SPSS and Excel software. ArcGIS was employed to generate maps.
Results: The study revealed that mining activities have positive and significant effects on the economic (average: 3.34) and social (average: 2.83) dimensions and also negative and significant effects on the environmental dimension (average: 3.22).
The Mabak model ranking of village sustainability showed top-ranked villages: Aghbolagh Taghamin (0.940), Ochgonbad Khan (0.715), and Bastandereh (0.568), and lowest-ranked village: Shahrak (-0.869).
Conclusions: Mining activities in the Karani District have led to a stable economic status, semi-sustainable social development, and unstable environmental conditions in rural areas. The sustainability ranking further indicates that, beyond proximity to mines, several factors influence village sustainability, including:

Social awareness and the demand-driven spirit among residents.
The performance and socio-political relations of local village managers, especially the village council and village head.

The findings highlight the dual-edged impact of mining, underscoring the need for strategies to balance economic benefits with environmental sustainability.

Designing a sustainable rural livelihood model based on the rural ecosystem

Vahid Seyfi

Objective: To sustain rural communities and enhance their economic and social vitality, their connections with urban centers and their position within the broader national framework must be preserved. Villages should adopt localized models to ensure their resilience. Unfortunately, a comprehensive model for sustainable rural livelihoods at the national and provincial levels is lacking, often leading to a uniform approach that overlooks regional specificities. This study aims to explore the revitalization of villages and the creation of sustainable livelihoods through biomass entrepreneurship. A biomass village is defined as a region where a comprehensive biomass utilization system is established and collaboratively managed by stakeholders in the area.
Methods: This research employed the meta-combination method to analyze a total of 120 articles and related studies sourced from the CIVILICA citation index (1380–1401). After applying inclusion criteria, 63 articles were selected for in-depth analysis. The study adopts a qualitative approach within the interpretive paradigm to explore a sustainable rural livelihood model grounded in the rural ecosystem. The research is practical, focusing on actionable insights for designing sustainable rural livelihoods.
Results: Key components identified for designing a sustainable rural livelihood model include: 1. Food Security and Nutrition: Ensuring rural food security and addressing malnutrition; 2. Human Capital Development: Increasing workforce productivity through higher literacy levels; 3. Tourism and Markets: Promoting sustainable tourism development and strengthening local markets and bazaars; 4. Infrastructure Investment: Investing in rural development infrastructure to support livelihoods.
Conclusions: The study synthesized findings from prior research conducted across various rural regions in the country to develop a model for sustainable rural livelihoods. The proposed model focuses on three primary axes:

Rural Consumption Patterns: Encouraging sustainable consumption practices within rural households.
Rural Poverty Reduction: Addressing poverty through targeted interventions and resource allocation.
Household Livelihoods: Enhancing the economic resilience of rural households through diversified income sources.

By integrating these elements, the proposed model provides a comprehensive framework for revitalizing rural areas and fostering sustainable livelihoods. The findings underscore the importance of adopting localized, ecosystem-based approaches tailored to the unique needs of rural communities.