Edris Karimi, Zahra Faturechi,
Volume 13, Issue 48 (9-2022)
Abstract
Today, benefits from energy sources, especially non-renewable sources, can have various effects on economic indicators, and for this reason, it has risks for the economy and society. One of these important economic indicators is income inequality, which over time leads to many problems for societies. In this research, the effect of dependence on non-renewable natural resources on the income inequality of developed countries has been investigated. This dependence has been re-examined by separating non-renewable resources into fossil and non-fossil resources. The data of the study was collected from 25 developed countries during the years 1990 to 2019, and after making sure that no false regressions occurred during the estimation, an econometric study was conducted between the variables. According to the short-term and long-term estimation results obtained from the consolidated group average approach, it was determined that although in the short-term dependence on natural resources has no effect on income distribution, in the long-term two variables dependence on total non-renewable natural resources and dependence on fossil non-renewable natural resources have a negative effect and Significant as well as the variable of dependence on non-renewable non-fossil natural resources had a negative and insignificant effect on inequality. It was also determined that the control variables used such as: education, globalization and institutional quality can reduce income inequality in developed countries.
Mrs. Masoumeh Mohammadifar, Dr. Saeed Karimi Potanlar, Dr. Saeed Rasekhi, Dr. Shahryar Zaroki,
Volume 16, Issue 60 (9-2026)
Abstract
Climate change and income inequality are intertwined challenges of sustainable development, yet empirical evidence on the role of government size in environmental quality remains inconclusive. Focusing on three carbon-based indicators, territorial carbon dioxide emissions, consumption-based carbon footprint, and production-based carbon footprint, this study examines the relationship between government size and environmental quality and investigates whether income inequality moderates the magnitude and direction of this relationship. Using panel data for 58 countries over the period 1994–2023, the model is estimated based on five-year averages and diagnostic-based estimators, including FGLS and random effects with country-clustered standard errors; PCSE is also reported as a robustness check for the territorial-emissions group. Income inequality is measured using four complementary indicators: pre-tax and post-tax Gini coefficients, the income ratio of the top 20 percent to the bottom 20 percent, and the tenth-to-first decile ratio. The results show that government size, at the average level of inequality, is associated with higher carbon-based indicators and, consequently, lower environmental quality; however, this relationship depends on the structure of income distribution, the type of carbon indicator, and the inequality measure used. The negative interaction terms indicate that income inequality weakens the positive association between government size and carbon-based indicators. The income-heterogeneity analysis for per capita carbon dioxide emissions further shows that this relationship is stronger in countries below the median income level. In addition, the estimated income coefficients are consistent with the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis, although most observations remain on the upward-sloping segment of the curve. Overall, the findings suggest that improving environmental quality requires coordinating redistributive policies with a reorientation of public spending toward low-pollution sectors and low-carbon infrastructure.
