Economy

Rural regions have experienced varied changes and social and economic reconstruction during last three decades. There exists great tendency toward functional integration between villages and cities due to increase in mobility, improvement in communication information as well as rural services. This in turn, resulted in the expansion of urban function including construction mass housing units, production, services, recreations and tourism activities in these regions. These functional changes case conversion in the nature of rural areas based on agricultural production, into consumption-orientation center. This new entities are non-homogeneous. This situation is influenced by many factors including physical conditions such as geographic location, isolation, and characteristics, climatic and sometimes human differences responsible for rural economic and social variations. Taking into account these variations and nonhomogeneities in rural area, efficient and optimum development plans are nonexistence. Increase in urban-ruralization around Tehran metropolitan has led to major physical, economic, social and cultural consequences. Lack of identification of the major relevant roots and sources has led to expansion of these negative consequences to other identical places. This in turn, demands the identification of the responsible factors and its change processes and mechanisms. Thus, the identification, explanations, exploration of those laws and frame works pertaining to urban ruralization as a major topical-spatial phenomenon is highly recommended. The first step in this regard is the determination, definition and assessment of ruralization and more specifically urbanruralization. The study area is Roobat Karim located in the vicinity of Tehran metropolitan. It is followed by determination of degree of ruralization as well as majorresponsible relevant factors.

Taking into account the nature and the objective of the study, descriptive-analytical method was chosen. Based on theoretical foundation of the study, there exist different methods and indices regarding the identification and classification of ruralization. This study concentrates on two dimensions including village’s functions and population and its growth during 1976-2011. It is followed by application of PROMETHEE multi indices decision making method in order to determine village’s functional status through emphasis on agricultural activities. This study further demands hierarchical clustering technique for classification of the villages. Finally, Clack ruralization indices as well as field survey were applied for determination of the village type in this regard. Furthermore, with respect to those villages which urban ruralization occurred, qualitative method of base theory that is Grounded theory was applied in order to identify the responsible factors. At first step interview with rural key official persons and with those with long history of residency (31) was implemented in order to find the casual conditions pertaining to formation and expansion of urban ruralization phenomena. In the second step, taking into account the methodology of the base theory, open coding was done. Regarding this step those relevant raw data were both labeled and conceptualized. Following, the second and third steps sub-classes are divided into broad concepts and those were divided into nodal concepts.

This study concludes that based on application of base theory in 8 villages, many factors including life desirability comparing with place of birth and adjacent settlements, lack of special costs, inexpensive business, lack of cultural barriers, variation in job opportunities, existence of different rents, economic and political structures are among some of the influential factors regarding urban-ruralization phenomena. It is furtherargued that income and saving level, the nature of center-periphery theory, capital accumulation system, discrimination with respect to poverty issue, imbalanced distribution of power, wealth, income and access to job opportunities are other determinant factors as well. Incapacity with respect to attraction of external capitals for creation of job opportunities, shortage of complementary jobs to combat seasoned unemployment, lack of potential for absorbing educated and well equipped social capital, lack of technical and vocational training related to appropriate agricultural technology, shortages of ample suitable agricultural lands and lack of knowledge of environmental conservation are among other responsible variables in this regard. Moreover, lack of appropriate and efficient agricultural market systems as well as cooperation’s and ware houses, need for government and other institutions supports, incapability in formation of industrial clusters, lack of tendency regarding economic background good for villages, management, the formation of two different construction types, land price and its relevant speculation, property rent, lack of effective control upon rural physical development, economic household participation and lack of social responsibility and self-reliance and easy accessibility to Tehran metropolitan all are responsible regarding degree of ruralization of Roobat Karim.

Draught is being considered as a climatic reality in arid and semi-arid regions such as Iran. Drought is capable of generating drastic impacts over water and soil resources, vegetation, animals and human beings. Water is a prominent factor as far as agricultural product is concerned specially in arid zones. Draught and its impact on water resources will bear unpleasant consequences namely for rural settlers whose livelihood depend on agricultural pursuit.it is argued that draught will lead to set of complicated environmental, economic and social impacts. Taking into account the frequency of its occurrence, extent and complexity it demands more attention regarding the identification of its impacts. There is not a rigid agreement regarding the definition of this phenomenon. This in turn will lead to some complexities with respect to the assessment of draught. There exist different measures for simulation of rainfalls, water surface run offs as well as other water resources. This helps to come up with clear images of climatic and hydrological draught. There exist different indices for measuring rainfall deviation from average including SPI and SDI. Lack of sufficient knowledge’s and understanding with respect to impacts is being considered as other complexity regarding the inter partition of draught. In spite of high occurrence and the great magnitude of draught, little attention paid to explanation of its impacts. According to the relevant statistics 22 % of economic damages resulted from natural hazard is associated with draught. 33 % of people are being affected by draught. In the countries based on agriculture economy, impact of draught could be evidenced by low surface water supply and underground waters. This in turn, is responsible for reduction in water supply as well as water quality, low level of crops production, productivity, and crisis regarding food an increase in livestock death. On the other hand, drought impacts could exemplify it in economic, social and environmental impacts including decrease in household incomes, reduction in substitute income resources, and increase in both hours and volume work, conflict regarding water utilization, food deficiencies, malnutrition, low level of health, and accessibility to sanitation services, low education possibilities, unequal access to financial supports. Moreover, increase in rural migration, lack of power, low life quality, destruction of natural habitats, low productivity of forests and pastures, increase in temperature as well as evaporation, low soil productivity, reduction in water resources, pollution, increase in fire incidence are among other impacts. Variation in spatial and temporal scale of its draught turns it into a very unique phenomenon. It is argued that draught impacts are result of natural interaction (low rainfall) and the way respondents respond. Most of draught studies predominantly are concentrated at national level. However, well documented information regarding draught impacts is nonexistence. This study aims to investigate draught impacts and its influential responsible factors at rural household level.

Current wide spread and server drought exerted considerable damage in Dodangeh rural economy. Efforts toward mitigation of economic impacts of draught require the identification of characteristics of this phenomenon. This study suggests that the assessment and evaluation of intensity and continuity of draught would well be done through application of standard rainfall and surface run offs. It further indicates that drought as a complex phenomenon is capable of increasing the vulnerability of the rural households. Certain economic impacts of draught are unexpected. Contrary to other draught studies results, agricultural lands have not been shirked. This has something to do with lack of due information regarding moisture status. The identification of draught risk is prerequisite for mitigation of farmer’s vulnerabilities. This in turn demands the application of sound and influential drought management based on information and relevant knowledge. In as much as agriculture is the most prominent livelihood in the region thus providing non-agricultural occupations help to reduce the level of vulnerability. Therefore, policies and measures for generating non-agricultural jobs in regions with high subjectivity to draught are highly recommended. According to the finding of this study, selling livestock’s and agricultural land are among some strategies for combating against draught taken by farmers. It is recommended that vulnerability of farmers, long run impacts and management issue all need to be considered. Moreover, improvement in extension services through provision of computable mechanism suited with draught condition assists mitigation of draught unpleasant impacts based on regression analysis, the amount of farmers debts, financial ability, age and households expenditure are the major variables as far as households vulnerability to draught is concerned. Furthermore, provision of financial and social support system is highly suggested.

The formation of idea is being considered as a first step regarding the creation of new innovative thoughts in any organization. That is idea processing is an important phase regarding the development of new products as well as innovations. Idea about new products processes and markets create new opportunities which potentially is capable of new innovations. This in turn, accelerates and improves organizational functionality. The development of new idea provides organization with competence capabilities at global level. This is a prerequisite for any organization as far as the success issue is concerned. In fact, creativity of the workers associated with level of technology and market presence is a major asset of any organization. The high speed of information flow made some organizations incapable of appropriate competition. This could demand application of continuous flow of ideas to fuel the innovation those practitioners associated with technical and vocational organizations could be considered as major source of new ideas. However, the development as well as the practicalities of new ideas demands specific institutional and social backgrounds. People pertaining to different groups are better able to interchange ideas. The major objective of this paper is to identify the prominent factors responsible for functionality of entrepreneurial ideas regarding internship practitioners in rural educational base associated with Isfahan office of technical and vocational education.

This study is based on descriptive-analytical research method along with application of questionnaires. Statistical participation led society comprised of 2300 interns who in rural technical-vocational educational base in Isfahan during 2011-2014 training period. 322 questionnaires were determined to be appropriate for the analysis. This study further supported by application of Cochran formula and classified random sampling. The viability of  thequestionnaire first based on Isfahan technical vocational expert view points and through Kronbakh varied between 0.88 - 0.940. This study further demands application of principle component analysis, in other to deduct the number of influential variables into relevant factor. Eigenvalue more than 1 was determined as a base for extraction of significant factors. Varimax rotation was applied as well. This study further requires U Mann-Whitney & Kruskal Wallis in order to compare averages pertaining to extracted factors related to respondent groups.

In spite of positive altitude of the respondents to ward training activities, due to existence of certain circumstances in clouding lack of familiarity as well as accessibility regarding creation of entrepreneurial ideas, internets, social press media and newspapers, these ideas did not get a chance to be productive and practical. Moreover, external factors such as physical and financial resources and facilities had lower impacts regarding the conversion of ideas into opportunities. Finally, family supports and social capital components due to small rural settlements as well as the composition of the respondent groups (female as a major group), need to be considered as well.

The achievement of sustainable development is being considered as prominent objective of rural planners. Agriculture is very important sector in this regard. Its associated activities could encompass all pillar of sustainability that is economic, environmental, social and institutional. Jouzan in Hamadan is being known as one of the major area regarding raisin as well as grape production. This in turn, is associated with sustainable rural economic development. The research questions are as follow: To what extent nuts and dried fruits are responsible for employment opportunities and income generation? Are these products capable of attracting investment?

Needed data were obtained through both field works and documentation. Statistical society composed of all rural settlers of Jouzan district. According to 2011 census this district encompasses 12 villages, 2204 households and 7301 persons. Maniran upper Nowshar due to high acreage of vine vary yard were chosen as sample villages via random sampling technique and Cochran formula. Viability of this study through application of Kronbakh alpha turned out to be 0.821.

This study suggests that the household’s status from income stand point compare with the time that this village was not involved in dried fruit production, greatly improved, number of created job due to construction of raison processing companies. It further shows that the amount of saving and purchasing power of rural settlers greatly promoted. The degree of investment in both private and public sectors increased thanks, to positive economic impact of raison and dried fruit production.

Lack of variations existed in economic settings and a job opportunity is being considered as the most significant characteristics of the rural country’s economic structures. It is argued that occurrence of variations in rural economic activities as an approach, could be considered as an appropriate measure in which most of the development theoricians believe in regarding the mitigation of the negative impacts associated with this mal structure as well as the achievement of sustainable rural development. The major objective of this study deals with identification of main barriers regarding the occurrence of variations in rural economic activities of the bordering villages located in Marivan.

The research method based on the objectives of the study has applied nature. It has descriptive and analytical essence. The statistical society is associated with Marivan which is located in 10 km of Iraq international border. 18 villages were selected as a sample. The sample size based on application of Cochran formula amounted to be 334 households. This study further supports the application of SPSS software for analysis purposes.

This study suggests that barriers toward regional variations could be classified into social, physical, and managerial – institutional ones. However, there is not a drastic difference between all the selected villages from barriers stand points. Generally speaking the barriers are numerous. Based on step wise regression method, managerial institutional, physical, economic and social variables are capable of explaining 88% of the variation. It further suggests that the managerial- institutional structures compare with others are more responsible for lack of variations in rural economic activities.

Stagnation with regard to rural traditional economic activities based on natural resources including agriculture and mining during last decades demand new strategies regarding strength and variations in economic activities and bases. However, concentration upon one type of economic activity of Iran’s rural settlements may waste energy and production resources as well as out migration. It is argued that instability in the country’s villages is resulted from lack of variations in economic activities associated in rural settlements. This study aims to create variation in economic activities and achievement of economic sustainability in rural settlements of Khoramdareh in Zanjan.

This study has applied nature. However, methodologically speaking is descriptiveanalytical. 28 measures were chosen in order to access the economic sustainability of rural settlements. Statistical society is composed of 1143 households out of which 287 were selected from 4 villages that are Rahmatabad, Baghdareh, Alvand and Sukahriz out of 17 villages. Cronbach’s alpha was applied for viability of the research. It turns out to be 0.765. VIKOR model was used for the analysis purpose.

This study suggests that those villages that possess job variation rank higher in terms of sustainability. According to classification of the villages based on number of jobs, Sukahriz with 32 jobs falls into the highest class with 2396 population. It follows by Rahmatabad with 22 jobs and 889 persons which fall into medium group. Alvand and Baghdareh with 14 and 11 jobs and 362 and 850 persons respectively fall into the lowest category. Based on application of VIKOR model regarding the assessment of studied villages from economic sustainability stand point, Sukahriz with 0.025 within range of 0.325 - 0.000 possesses higher sustainability.

Variations in rural economy, prevention of the unprecedented rural-urban migration, and reduction in spatial imbalances between rural and urban areas via creation of industries namely industrial towns are being considered as the fundamental Iran’s policies regarding rural development. The major objective of this study is to identify and investigate the economic impact of Aghola industrial towns upon the adjacent rural areas located in Gorgan in Aghola.

This study from methodological stand point has descriptive- analytical nature. However based on its objective, possesses applied essence. The data gathering demands application of field works as well as documentation. The studied villages composed of 7 villages located in vicinity of this industrial town. 320 households were selected based on random sampling technique and Cochran formula. The credibility of the study was checked by rural studies experts. Viability determined to be 70 % based on Kronbakh Alpha. This study is further supported by principle component analysis as well as one way analysis of variance using SPSS.

This study suggests that the location of Aghola industrial town imposed a prominent economic impact upon the adjacent rural development. However, increase in welfare and purchasing power component compare with the other components possesses the highest significant difference.

Nowadays, management and economy as science as well as entrepreneurship receive special attention. Strengthening entrepreneurship and creation of an appropriate setting for its development are being considered as a good tool for economic improvement namely in developing countries. Based on entrepreneurship world statement, there exist a high relationship between national economic growth and organizational and national entrepreneurship level. Generally speaking, entrepreneurs potentially exist in any country. However, one should put extra effort to increase their capabilities. Moreover, the existing structures should pave the way for proving themselves. As a matter of fact, entrepreneurs play a vital role regarding social and economic development and transformation. They act as a prime element for revitalization as well as continuation of development. That is why many governments in both developed and developing countries try to guide and encourage entrepreneurs and provide them relevant education .Iran experienced high rural-urban migration as a result of rural backwardness. This is associated with ghettoes, down grading of quality of life, low job opportunities, increase in crime and delinquency. The major objective of rural plan is the achievement of rural development. This in turn will lead to reduction of unemployment increase in job opportunities. These two phenomena are the resultant of Imbalanced labor force, demand and supply as well as decrease in agricultural growth sector in rural areas and decline in job opportunities (23.4%). It is argued that agricultural development by itself cannot guarantee rural economic development and irradiate poverty. Thus attention to other sectors is strongly suggested. Despite, the importance of entrepreneurial ship and its impact upon global economy, Iran has not paid an appropriate attention in this regard. High degree of youth population, lack of job opportunities, high unemployment rate demand more attention to this phenomenon. As such this paper predominantly aims to access entrepreneurship status in southern Astarabad in Gorgan.

This study possesses descriptive- analytical nature. It is farther based on survey technique and questionnaire. As such 10 experts in the area were asked to give their opinions in order to weigh the relevant chosen criteria. Study area is composed of 16 villages which house 4805 households. Cochran formula was applied in order to determine the appropriate sample size with the significant level of 95%. Sample size turned out to be 356 which extracted via random sampling technique taking into consideration the number of households in every individual village. This study further followed by application of hierarchical weighing fuller triangle technique regarding the viewpoints of the experts. At the end, it demands ORESTE model in order to rank the villages.

This study suggests that entrepreneurship not only cause better utilization of the existing resources, but also paves the way for rural settlements sustainability. This is because entrepreneurship through providing job opportunities and resultant sufficient incomes make the settlers to remain in their village. It further could attract investment and draw outside labor force to the area. This in turn will strengthen the foundations of national regional development. However, all of the villages do not possess the same potential in terms of entrepreneurship. As such this study try to prioritize villages located in southern Astarabad in Gorgan from entrepreneurship aspect. According to experts view points, accessibility to education and training, consulting, experiences, knowledge and skill are being considered as main yardsticks in this regard. However, access to capital without needed education and training could not lead to entrepreneurship. According to ORESTE technique computation Naziabad, Sarnabad, and Maryamabad, based on the above mentioned criteria possess the highest ranks as opposed to lower shahkoh, Siyashlou and Qazagh-mahale. This study suggests education and training regarding entrepreneurship specifically in the area of tourism. It believes that lack of capital is being considered as a major obstacle in the study area. Providing low interest loans to rural settlers which could give them initial capital and motivation with respect to entrepreneurship is highly recommended.

Achievement of rural development as a way to maintain national security and identity requires extra efforts regarding deprivation issue in backward regions and makes them receive their development rights. Economic development paves the way for creation of optimum and thriving life space. It is argued that physical isolation, potential economic and physical incapability, and remoteness from political, economic and decision making focal points enhance their degree of under development and make the corresponding gap even wider. The authors believe that the creation of border markets in rural areas is being considered as one of the strategy regarding spatial economic development in border areas. This could lead to stabilization of population, creation of job opportunities, , reduction of goods smuggling activities, utilization of common resources between neighboring countries, sustainable economic development. It further decreases geopolitics tensions between two countries through increase in goods movement and better utilization of space economy. Golestan province and Gonbad Kuvoos city are located in dry climatic region. This is associated with potential physical and economic incapability namely with respect to agricultural sector. Lack of space economy invites planning. One of the most important plans regarding economic development taking into account its potential situation as well as its border location is development of border markets in which could facilitate the trade between two countries. This in turn would grantee security, employment and higher level of development. This study aims to emphasize spatial development and rural organization with respect to border villages. Taking into account its specific climatic conditions as well as geopolitics challenges resulted from having common border with Torkamanestan, development of border markets could be an appropriate option. They could enhance national security, stabilization of population as well as immigration.

This study has applied nature. Data gathered through documentary approach. After reviewing the relevant literatures and based on finding associated with previous studies conducted by Fajr development consulting engineers and existing information, indices and indicators were selected. This is followed by application of multi criteria decision making technique, TOPSIS, regarding data analysis.

Based on the application of TOPSIS technique and corresponding computation and more specifically measurement of similarity index, Dashli Brun would be an optimum location for creation of border market and considered to be target village. The corresponding indices regarding determination of Dashi Brun as target village are distance to Inche Brun border market, to Eshghabad, to provincial town, to border, concentration index, amenities indices and population growth rate. It is argued that distance to Inche Brun border market could lead to better distribution of economic activities in border region. Moreover, distance from capital of Torkamanestan, Eshghabad, could enhance trade along the border and subsequent economic prosperity in the bordering region. Distance to Golestan center and other populous cities increase both imports and exports activities in border market. Centrality index and population growth rate will lead to provision of needed labor force for border market as well as better population distribution in the region and the province. This in turn will improve rural space economy in pioneer area. In effect, development of Dashli Brun border market will have great impact upon rural economic development income level and other corresponding development indices .Space economy associated with rural area more specifically border regions demand more attention ,interactions and components resulted from government divergence and convergences, border line controls and preventing goods smuggling activities. It is argued that space economy play better role regarding border market. The development of border market could well be justified by the existence of physical and climatic barriers, unpleasant social, economic and entertaining conditions, lack of desire and motivation to leave in the area, political, economic and security challenges in the area This invites planning in order to fully utilize the regional potentials. 

Social capital is being considered as way to achieve sustainable rural development as far asthe development experts are concerned. It is argued that social capital make the achievement of sustainable development possible taking into consideration provided opportunities and major societies constants at different levels including micro and macro level. In other word, social capital not only affects development process but also it is affected by as well. It is argued that social capital as a very important theoretical tool is capable of investigating the role of social variables regarding sustainable rural development. Lack of sufficient attention to rural settlers as social capital is a major challenge as far as sustainable rural development is concerned. This in turn could facilitate planning trend regarding rural sustainability through participation of rural settlers. Based on the relevant studies attention to social capital could enhance the achievement of sustainable rural development. Moreover, the relationship between social capital and level of rural development could well be justified by space economy and spatial dimension. Explanation of the phenomena and the spatial organization are affected by interaction of space and activities. Spatial dimension could exemplify itself in social processes and relationships. In effect, function of space is affected by space, time and social and economic mechanisms. As such this study aims to find out the relationship between social capital and rural development. It further tries to come up with social capital pattern.

This study deals with analytical-descriptive research method based on both qualitative andquantitative methods. Sampling technique was random stratified sample. Based on physical location, distance, and number of households, six villages were selected from each class. Altogether, 18 villages were selected in the study area. Statistical society is composed of two groups that are local rural settlers (host community) and local authorities. Based on KMO test, social capital viability turned out to be 0:71. Moreover, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients used for evaluation of social capital in corresponding villages turned out to be 0.89. Social capital measures were selected through application of critical analysis over previous studies. In second phase, primary yardsticks and measures were screened in order to identify the prime social capital yardsticks with regard to sustainable development. Topsis technique was used for determination of social capital regarding level of development in sample villages.

Nowadays social capital is being considered as the most important development capital. As such, social capital with its spatial dimension is being known as a comprehensive strategy for achievement of social sustainability within sustainable development approach. It is because that the major objective of sustainable rural development based on social capital approach is promoting quality of life of local people, empowerment, capability formation, increase participation level as well as self-reliance, expanding rural communication network both in and outside of the villages and institutional development. This study suggests that there exist a relationship between social capital and level of rural development in the study area. It means that 63.5 percent of variation regarding level of development of the villages is explained by social capital. The magnitude of I index for determination of the corresponding spatial pattern based on social capital turned out to be 0.41. This figure compared with E (I) which is 0.03165 indicates that spatial pattern correspond with social capital of the studied villages incline toward multi pattern (concentrated and clustered). The highlight of this paper is first the endogenous nature of social capital and second confirmation of the past studies in this regard. Spatial pattern associated with social capital indicates that villages located in the center and in the proximity of large cities including Mashhad, Nishabur possess lower level of social capital. Heading toward the boundary of the province, the rate of rural social capital will increase.